StarDate

The universe consists of everything we can see, plus a whole lot more – all matter and energy, space and time. It was born 13.8 billion years ago, in the Big Bang. It’s been expanding and changing ever since. We don’t know how big it is – it might be infinite. We’re not sure how it will end. And we don’t even know what most of it is made of.

Universe comes from a Latin word that means “combined into one.” It’s been described as everything that is, that ever has been, and that ever will be.

When the universe was born, it consisted almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, the simplest chemical elements. Some of those elements came together to make the first stars, which clumped together to form galaxies. As the first stars aged, they created heavier elements, which were incorporated into later stars. Some of those elements formed planets, and even the life on Earth.

But most of the universe is hidden. About two-thirds of everything in the universe consists of dark energy. We don’t know what it is – only that it’s making the universe expand faster. About a quarter of the universe consists of dark matter. We don’t know what it is, either – perhaps some type of exotic particle.

Everything else – all the stars and galaxies and energy that we can see and experience – makes up just five percent of the universe – the bare tip of the cosmic iceberg.

More tomorrow.

Script by Damond Benningfield

The Artemis II astronauts got to see something that only 24 other people have seen with their own eyes: the far side of the Moon. As they looped behind the Moon, the astronauts could see almost the entire hemisphere that remains hidden from those of us on Earth.

The Moon is “locked” so that one hemisphere always faces our planet – a result of the same process that creates ocean tides. We didn’t get our first glimpse of the farside until 1959, when a Soviet probe snapped a picture.

The two lunar hemispheres look different. While dark volcanic plains cover about a third of the nearside, they cover just one percent of the farside. The farside is more heavily cratered. And the crust on the farside is thicker. That could be the result of a gentle “splat” by a smaller moon when the Moon was young.

The farside often is called the dark side of the Moon – “dark” as in unknown or unseen. It actually receives just as much sunlight as the nearside does. But the nights are darker there. From the nearside, Earth is in view most of the time, brightening the nights. But Earth is never seen from the farside. So the nights are illuminated only by the stars – making the dark side of the Moon a really good spot for stargazing.

The crescent Moon is low in the west in early evening. The planet Venus, the “evening star,” is close to its right. And the star Spica is even closer above the Moon.

Script by Damond Benningfield

The Moon is lumpy. In fact, its gravity is the lumpiest of any body in the solar system. That makes it tricky for spacecraft to maintain the right speed and altitude as they orbit the Moon.

The lumps are known as mass concentrations – “mascons.” They were discovered by Lunar Orbiter 1, which arrived at the Moon 60 years ago. You can’t see them – only feel their gravitational pull.

Lunar Orbiter was designed to survey possible landing sites for Apollo astronauts. But as it circled the Moon, its orbit changed in unexpected ways. As it flew over some parts of the Moon, it sped up a little and dropped closer to the surface. The same effect was seen in the orbits of later missions as well.

The effect could be dramatic. Apollo 16 left a small satellite in orbit in April of 1972. It was supposed to stay in orbit for several months. Instead, it crashed after just one month.

Many of the mascons are associated with giant impact basins. They formed when asteroids slammed into the Moon long ago. Dense molten rock bubbled up below the scars, then cooled and hardened. This rock is denser than the surrounding rock. That makes its gravitational pull a little stronger.

Today, we have good maps of the mascons – allowing satellites to escape their fatal attraction.

The crescent Moon is quite low in the sky as twilight fades the next couple of nights. Venus, the “evening star,” stands close by.

Script by Damond Benningfield

The first of a series of lunar “spy” satellites entered orbit around the Moon 60 years ago today. There wasn’t any secret about it – it was conducted in full public view. But its camera system was adapted from one built for an Air Force spy satellite.

Lunar Orbiter 1 was the first American spacecraft to orbit the Moon – a half-dozen earlier attempts had all failed. Its main goal was to snap high-resolution pictures of possible landing sites for Apollo astronauts. But it would also map a good portion of the lunar surface, and take a close-up look at a few spots on the far side. And it would measure the Moon’s gravitational and magnetic fields.

Its camera system used two lenses – one for close-ups, the other for wider views. The images were recorded on 65-millimeter film, then processed in an on-board lab. Finally, they were scanned and transmitted to Earth.

Eastman Kodak had created the camera system for a spy satellite called SAMOS. But for that craft, the film was dropped back to Earth, where it was grabbed by an airplane as it parachuted toward the surface – something they couldn’t do from a quarter of a million miles away.

Lunar Orbiter 1 took more than 200 pictures. They were combined with the images from four successor missions to produce the most comprehensive atlas of the lunar surface to that time. And scientists continue to study the images today.

Script by Damond Benningfield

A stellar vanishing act led to a revelation about an iceball far from the Sun: It has a thin atmosphere. It’s the smallest object with a known atmosphere in the entire solar system.

The object is 2002 XV93. It’s in the Kuiper Belt – a wide “doughnut” beyond the orbit of Neptune, the Sun’s outermost major planet. The belt contains millions of icy bodies, including Pluto.

XV93 is about 300 miles in diameter – just one-fifth as big as Pluto.

Astronomers in Japan watched the little iceball in January of 2024. They’d calculated that XV93 would pass in front of a star, hiding the star from view. As they watched the star disappear, it didn’t blink out instantly. Instead, it dimmed a bit before it passed behind XV93. And it took a moment to reach full brightness when it returned to view. That meant that something was partially obscuring the star: an atmosphere. It’s only about one percent as thick as Pluto’s atmosphere, which is a bare wisp.

XV93’s gravity is extremely weak, so it can’t hang on to any atmosphere for long. So the gases might vent into space from its interior, which would keep the atmosphere going. Or they might have surrounded the object after it was hit by a small comet. In that case, the atmosphere would start to vanish quickly – eventually leaving XV93 airless.

Script by Damond Benningfield